Sicily
The Contested Island | From the Fall of Rome to Italian Unification (476 AD – 1860)
When we think of Sicily, images of sun-drenched coastlines, ancient ruins, and incredible food often come to mind. It’s a world-renowned destination, a jewel of the Mediterranean. But beneath this idyllic surface lies a history far more complex and turbulent than most travelers realize. For over 1,400 years, Sicily was not its own master; it was an island defined by a constant, relentless succession of foreign rulers.
This was not a peaceful evolution. The island’s story is one of conquest, rebellion, and strategic maneuvering, where control was passed from Goths to Byzantines, Arabs to Normans, Swabians to Angevins, and Aragonese to Bourbons. Each new power left an indelible mark, layering cultures, languages, and traditions on top of one another.
This article peels back the layers to reveal some of the most surprising and impactful truths hidden within Sicily’s long story of change. From the fall of the Roman Empire to the unification of Italy, we’ll uncover how this island became a crossroads of civilizations, forged in the crucible of perpetual conquest.
After the Western Roman Empire collapsed, Sicily fell under the stable rule of the Ostrogoths. This changed when the ambitious Byzantine Emperor Justinian I decided to reunite the old Roman Empire. The pretext for war came in 535 AD with the assassination of the Ostrogoth queen Amalasunta, a human-scale drama that Justinian used as a catalyst to “reconquer” Italy.
The Byzantine Period (535–827 d.C.)
The Byzantine era was inaugurated following the lengthy and destructive Gothic War (535–553 d.C.). This conflict was triggered by the ambitious project of Emperor Justinian I, known as the Renovatio Imperii, which aimed to reclaim the Western territories lost to the Roman-Barbarian kingdoms.
The war began in 535 d.C. when the Byzantine general Belisarius landed in Sicily. Sicily was the first territory to fall under Byzantine control, paving the way for the reconquest of the Italian peninsula. The final victory against the Ostrogoths came in 553 d.C. with the defeat and death of the last Ostrogothic king, Teia, at the Battle of Monte Lattario.
Despite the victory, the Byzantine authority over Italy proved to be fragile and short-lived, with the arrival of the Longobards in 568 d.C. immediately commencing a new phase of political fragmentation. Byzantine dominance over Sicily eventually gave way due to military weakness, invasions, and internal factors like the revolt of Euphemius.
The Muslim/Arab Emirate (827–1091 d.C.)
In 827 d.C., the Muslims invaded and conquered Sicily, establishing the Emirate of Sicily. This period introduced a profound transformation, particularly in culture and agriculture. The shift in power resulted from Byzantine weakness and the subsequent Arab invasions.
The Normans and the Creation of the Kingdom (1061–1266 d.C.)
The Muslim rule ended when the Normans, led by Roger I d’Altavilla, began their conquest in 1061. The military conquest was successful due in part to the political fragmentation among the Arabs. The island was fully conquered by 1091.
In 1130, Roger II unified Sicily and Southern Italy into the Kingdom of Sicily. This state became one of the most advanced and powerful in the Middle Ages, notable for its multi-ethnic and multi-religious society.
During the Norman period, the Papacy, under Pope Nicholas II, played a crucial political role by authorizing the Normans to govern the region, thereby establishing the legitimacy of their power and creating a strategic alliance (the Apostolica Legazia). The Papacy encouraged the Normans to defend Christianity against the remaining Muslims and promoted the renewal of the Church in Sicily.
Dynastic Shifts (Swabian, Angevin, Aragonese)
The unified kingdom entered a new phase with the Swabian (Hohenstaufen) dynasty (1194–1266 d.C.). The transition was dynastic, resulting from the marriage between Costanza d’Altavilla and Henry VI of Swabia. Notable among the Swabian rulers was Frederick II.
Following the death of Frederick II, power struggles and the intervention of the Papacy led to the ascendancy of the Angevin dynasty (1266–1282 d.C.). The Papacy frequently supported the Angevin cause against the Swabians.
Angevin rule was short-lived, ending with the Revolt of the Sicilian Vespers (1282), which led to the intervention of the Aragonese. Subsequently, the island fell under the dominion of the Aragonese (1282–1412 d.C.). Although the Papacy initially opposed the Aragonese, it eventually recognized their dominance through the Peace of Caltabellotta.
Spanish, Habsburg, and Bourbon Rule
Following the Aragonese period, Sicily passed under the control of the Spanish Habsburgs (1412–1713 d.C.). This long period was influenced by European wars and international treaties. While the Papacy maintained its role as the supreme religious authority, its direct political influence on the government began to diminish.
Due to the War of Spanish Succession and various treaties (such as the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713), Sicily briefly passed to the Habsburgs (1713–1734 d.C.) before falling under the rule of the Bourbons (starting 1734 d.C.).
In 1816, the Bourbon-ruled Kingdom of Sicily merged with the Kingdom of Naples to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
The Unification of Italy (1860–1861 d.C.)
The long history of Sicilian dominions concluded in the 19th century with the push for Italian unification. The key event was the Expedition of the Thousand (Spedizione dei Mille), led by Giuseppe Garibaldi in 1860.
The expedition led to the collapse of the Bourbon kingdom and the annexation of Sicily to the Kingdom of Sardinia (under the House of Savoy). This annexation served as the prelude to the formal Unification of Italy in 1861 under Vittorio Emanuele II. The Papacy, under Pius IX, opposed the annexation and the resulting loss of the kingdom.
The Papacy Often Acted More Like a Kingmaker Than a Spiritual Guide
Throughout much of Sicily’s history, the Pope in Rome acted as a major political player, wielding influence that often had little to do with spiritual guidance. The Papacy’s blessing—or condemnation—could determine the fate of dynasties and legitimize or delegitimize an entire kingdom.
Two key examples from Sicily’s past illustrate this clearly:
1. Legitimizing the Normans: In the 11th century, it was Pope Nicholas II who formally authorized the Normans to conquer Sicily. His strategic goal was twofold: gain a powerful military ally and “defend Christendom against the Muslims” still on the island. In exchange for this geopolitical alliance, the Pope granted the Norman invaders the legitimacy they needed to establish their kingdom.
2. Choosing Sides: Centuries later, the Papacy intervened directly in succession struggles. When the Swabian dynasty of Frederick II ended, the Pope threw his support behind the French Angevins to take control. After Sicilians revolted against the French, the Papacy initially opposed the Aragonese who came to the island’s aid, but was eventually forced to recognize their rule in the Pace di Caltabellotta.
While the Pope’s direct political power over Sicily faded in later centuries, for a crucial period of its history, the Papacy was a kingmaker. Its political maneuvering was a decisive factor in determining who ruled the island and how the balance of power shifted across Europe.
Sicily’s identity was not shaped by a single culture asserting its dominance, but forged in the fires of constant change. Its history is a testament to adaptation and resilience under a long line of foreign rulers—each leaving behind architecture, words, customs, and bloodlines. This endless cycle of conquests, rebellions, and high-stakes political games created the uniquely layered and complex culture that defines the island today.
Sicily’s identity was forged not in quiet isolation, but in the violent, brilliant, and contradictory heart of the Mediterranean’s swirling currents of power. This raises a final, thought-provoking question: How does a history defined by perpetual foreign rule shape a people’s idea of who they are?
